Mountains of Central Asia*
By Dr. Harka Gurung
Central Asia occupies a pivotal position in the orographic structure of the continent. It is from this highland core that mountain chains diverge to the west, north-east, and south-east. The main physiographic units of the region are extensive plateaus and depressions ringed by high ranges. This highland complexes described below in seven components: the Tibetan plateau, Hengduan, Kun Lun, Pamir, Tien Shan, Altai, and Urals.
The Tibetan Plateau
The plateau of Tibet, roof of the world, owes its extreme elevation to tectonic uplift as a result of collision of the Gondwana plate against the Angara plate. The land surface slopes towards south-east with an average elevation of 5,000m. The plateau extends 2,600km from west to east and is about half as wide from north to south. It is rimmed by high ranges in the south (Himalaya), west (Karakoram), and north (Kun Lun). In the east, the barrier is one of multiple ranges with deep gorges. Much of the interior is a tangled wilderness of mountains and plateaus interspersed with numerous lakes. One authority, Pierre Gourou, in his book L'Asie, claimed that there were 36 different mountain ranges in Tibet alone.
The structural strikes and thrusts on the plateau are mainly east-west oriented with a north-west loop in the west and a south loop in the east. The alignment of major relief features conforms to such a pattern. This is most evident from the long trench of the Indus-Brahmaputra which demarcates the Trans-Himalaya in Tibet from the Main Himalaya to the south. The parallel ranges of Nganglong and Gangdise in the west are a structural extension of the Karakoram and Ladakh Ranges. The highest peaks are the Alung Kangri (6,450 m) in the Nganglong and the famous Kailash/Kang Rimpoche (6,660m) in Gangdise range. The highest peak of all in the area is the Gurla Mandhata (7,739 m) which lies south of Kailash across the Manasarovar Lake. The Gandise Range forms the watershed between the continental plateau and the Indian Ocean drainage systems.
The Gangdise continues as an emphatic range as far as the longitude 90° E. Further north, Tanggula Range is aligned east-west, traversing the vast expanse of the Changthang (Northern Plain). It has some peaks approaching 6,900m. Nyaingentanglha Range, north-east of Lhasa, is much dissected and rugged. Its spurs are linked to Tanggula in the north and Hengduan towards the east. The highest point, Namchabarwa (7,756m), lies about 200km north-west of the Tsangpo-Dihang bend. Namchabarwa massif's south side is fully exposed to the monsoon regime, with an annual mean precipitation of 2,276mm, while the north side only receives 519mm. Thus, the south has nine forest zones compared to only six in the north. Further east, there are three parallel ranges aligned north-west/south-east. These are the Ning Ling at the head of the Mekong River, the Bayan Har at the head of the Yangtze River, and the Anyemaqen at the head of the Huang He. The last range also marks the boundary between the Tibetan plateau and the Qaidam basin. It extends east through the rugged Min Shan which has two branches. One branch trends south as the Qionglai Shan and another further east as the Daba Shan. The average elevation of the former is 2,500m and that of the latter above 2,000m.
The desert climatic situation of the western section of the plateau supports only nomadic pastoralism. The chief population centres are in the south-east, mainly along the Tsangpo and valleys further east. The encapsulation of the harsh physical environment led to the evolution of social mechanisms such as fraternal polyandry that prevented land fragmentation and decreased aggregate fertility. Yet it was this remote plateau that spawned Lamaism, a form of tantric Buddhism, that radiated far and wide _ including Mongolia. Therefore, while other mountain people are referred to as cultural groups, the Tibetans are associated with a civilisation that is mountain-based.
Hengduan
The Hengduan Mountains constitute a series of ranges that descend east from the Tibetan plateau to form the highlands of Sichuan (Four Rivers) and Yunnan (South of the Clouds). Although the area is physiographically linked to Central Asia, its environment and economy are more akin to those of the sub-tropical highlands of South-East Asia. The Hengduan Mountain Ranges represent a truly rugged terrain, but there is no complexity as to their configuration. Basically, they are north-south aligned, parallel ranges, alternating with deep gorges that block east-west travel, hence the name Hengduan which means `cut across' in Chinese. They are also sometimes referred to as Transverse Mountains and as River Gorge Country. The first range, Gaoligong, between the Irrawady and Salween rivers runs along the Myanmar-China boundary. The second range, the Taniantaweng with Moirigkawa Garbo (6,809m), lies between the Salween and Mekong. The third, Ningjing-Yun Ling, separates the gorges of Mekong and Yangtze (Jinsha Jiang). East of the Yangtze, the ranges of the Shaluli and Daxue on either side of the Jiang River are fairly extensive. Altitudes vary from 2,000-2,500m in the south to 7,000m in the north. The highest peak, the Gongga Shan/Minya Konka (7,589m), is on Daxue Range. This range marks the transitional zone between the dry Tibetan plateau and the wet Sinchuan basin. Limits of various ecological belts are 3,000m higher on the west side due to the mass-elevation effect of the Tibetan plateau. Large areas of primary deciduous and conferous forest have been cleared through commercial logging. The Shaluli Shan is marked by the spectacular Xia-qiao-tou (Tiger Leep Gorge) of the Yangtze around Yulongxue Shan/Jade Dragon Mountain (5,569m). Hengduan area with its wide altitudinal range and heavy monsoon rain has very rich and varied flora and fauna. Extensive areas are under dense forest, varying in type by elevation and aspect and hosting as many as 550 species of medicinal plants. Timber logging has become an important economic activity. Cultivation is generally practised below 3,000m. The rotation cycle for swidden agriculture for maize and dry rice ranges from three to 12 years. In the past, opium poppy cultivation was widespread. The area is home to numerous ethnic minorities with distinct languages and customs. Some of the better known are the Bai, Dai, Jingpo, Lisu, Miao, Naxi, Lhoba, and Yi. Of these, the Naxi have an ancient tradition of script-writing in pictograph form known as Dongba.
Kun Lun
Kun Lun, meaning `the South', in the language of Hotah on the ancient Silk Road, extends 2,500km from the Pamir to the Sichuan highlands. The main range, exceeding 6,000m, encloses the Tibetan plateau from the north. Its eastern extremity. Qin Ling, marks a climatic divide between the arid north and the humid south. West of Qin Ling, the range system broadens to enclose the Qaidan basin in Qinghai with two ranges. The northern one, the Qilan Shan, continues west and converges on the main range as the Altun Shan. The southern one, between the Tibetan plateau and Qaidan basin, is represented by the Anyemaqen, Burhan Budal, and Ho Xil sections culminating in Muztag Feng. It then extends west as a single range separating the Tibetan plateau to the south and the Tarim basin to the north. The higghest peak in the range, Mount Kongur (7,649), lies in Tibet. The Yakand River that drains Sinkiang (The New Frontier) has its source south of the range, and it turns north around the mountain complex where the Kun Lun, Karakoram, and Pamir meet. The Kun Lun rises above desolate deserts, yet its glaciers and snows feed several major rivers such as the Huang He, the Mekong, and the Yangtze. The climate is arid with mean annual precipitation ranging from 30-60mm to 100-300mm on higher slopes. The general pattern of land use is oasis agriculture below 1,500m, farming and winter grazing at 2,000-3,000m, and summer grazing at 3,000-4,200m.
The Pamir
The name Pamir or Bam-i-dunya (Roof of the World) of Persian writers, is actually derived from the broad valleys in south-east Tadzhikstan, but since has come to include all the mountains between the Amu Darya (Oxus) River and the Alay Range. The Pamir knot is the convergence area of several high ranges. These include the Hindu Kush from the south-west, the Karakoram from the south-east, Kun Lun from the east, and Tien Shan from the north-east. Geologically rich and complex, the area's strike lines make a sharp arcuate facing north towards Ferghana. This high mountain complex between the Tarim and the Karakum basins is inclined to the west and drained by the Amu Darya. Most of the area lies in Tadzhikstan, but the highest summit, Muztag Ata (7,719m), is in a north-south range in China. Tadzhikstan is dominated by mountainous relief, as 61.5 per cent of its land surface exceeds 2,000m in elevation. These uplands support only 5.7 per cent of the country's total popualtion due to the severity of the climate. The central part is in the form of an enclosed plateau where the Karakul lake is situated. Westwards, parallel ranges trend towards the south-west. These also have numerous high peaks, of which Pik Communizma (7,495 m) is prominent. Among these ranges, the Alayskiy Khrebet, marks the northern limit of the Pamir. The area has extensive snowfields and many glaciers. The climate is cold and arid; vegetation is sparse. The land is deeply dissected and also affected by intensive seismic processes. It is equally diverse in ethnic composition.
The Tadzhik are early migrants from Persia, and they are mostly agriculturalists. The Kazakh, Kyrgyzh, Turkman, and Uzbek belong to late waves of Mongoloid herders of horses and sheep with their traditional central Asian yurts. The Tadzhik in the north-west are more sedentary and depend on irrigation for crop and fruit cultivation. The Kyrgyzh are mostly nomadic with flocks of sheep, cattle, and yaks.
Tien Shan
The Tien Shan (Celestial Mountains) extends nearly 3,000km from Kyrghyzstan, through Sinkiang, to the Mongolian frontier as a barrier between vast depressions. The range has more than thirty peaks approaching 6,000m or more. In contrast to the north arcuate structure of the neighbouring Pamirs, strike lines of the Tien Shan are distinctly east-west oriented. This is expressed by a series of parallel ranges around the drainage of the Naryn River and the Issyk-Kul Lake which, it is claimed, is the second largest mountain lake in the world. These western ranges, called Alai or Alay, average 4,600m in altitude and enclose numerous inland lakes. East of the Issyk-Kul Lake, the range becomes narrower and reaches the highest point on Tomur Feng (2,435m). Continuing east, a southern spur separates the Tarim and Turfan depressions, while the main eastern range separates the deserts of Turfan and Dzungaria. The Bogda Feng (5,570m) in the latter range, due north of Turfan Pendi, lies 154 masl. West of Turfan, a subsidiary range, Borohoro Shan, trends north-west to join Dzungarkij Alatan on the Kazakstan border. The Tien Shan is a land of extremes in terms of temperature range. The ranges average from 3,000-5,000 masl and the northern slopes are exposed to air currents from the Artic Ocean and are moister than the southern ones. The Kazakh and Kyrghyz inhabitants are pastoralists with large herds of animals, mainly of horses, yaks, sheep, and goats. Since the abandonment of state farms that emphasised large herds, animal stocks in the Kyrghyz Republic have declined from 18 million in 1989 to 14 million in 1994. The region is important for mining copper, lead, antimony, and tungsten. Gas, oil, and hydropower are important energy resources of these mountain republics.
Altai
Altai or the Altay Range is a long chain traversing the borders of Russia, Kazakhstan, China, and Mongolia. They are fault block mountains trending south-east with their steep fronts facing south-east. The highest point, Mount Belukha (4,506m), lies to the north, in the headwaters of the Ob and Irtysh rivers in Russia. The ranges generally exceed 3,000m in elevation and descend towards the south-east in Mongolia. The north-western part receiving heavey precipitation has rich coniferous forests. The lower easterly ranges have extensive grasslands. The Altai extends nearly 1,600km in west Mongolia as the highest elevations in the country. In central Mongolia, the Changajn (Hangayn) Range runs 800km parallel to the Altai. The third range, Chentejn or Hantiyn, is aligned south-west/north-east between Ulanbaatar and the Russian border. A subsidiary range of the Altai trends east of Mt. Belukha along the northern border of Mongolia. North of Uvs lake, it is referred to as the Tannu Ola Range. The most easterly extension of the Altai is the Sayan Range between Yenisey River and Baikal Lake. It commences with a northerly bend and then turns south to the Mongolian border. The Kazakh, west of the Altai, and Mongol to the east are nomadic herders raising horses, camels, sheep, and goats. For most, mobile herding is an entire culture and way of life. Since the growing season is short due to extreme cold, herders keep their flocks alive on `senescent vegetation' for nearly eight months of the year. Apart from livestock, Mongolia's major economic resources come from mineral exploitation.
The Urals
The Ural Range extends about 2,400km from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the plains of Kazakhstan in the south. It is a remnant of old mountains with the highest point, Gora Norodnaya (1,894m), in the extreme north. Despite their mature and rounded topography, the Urals stand out as a distinct feature amidst the surrounding lowlands and form a physical boundary between Asia and Europe. The range can be considered in three sections. The northern section beyond 61° North is narrow and craggy with a sub-polar climate. Reindeer herding is an important economic activity, while the leading industries are forestry and timber products. The central section, between 51° and 61° N is very low and well-forested. However, mining is the most important industry in the area. The southern section has three parallel chains divided by intramontane basins. Woodlands constitute an extensive part of the area. The main occupations are agriculture and specialisation in horse-breeding and apiculture. The aboriginal population are the Khanty and Mansi in the north and the Bashkitr in the south.
(*Extracted from Dr. Harka Gurung's monograph entitled, Mountains of Asia: A Regional Inventory. Commissioned by Asia Pacific Mountain Network)
Title: Himalaya: Life on the Edge of the World
Authors: D. Zurick and P. P. Karan
Published by The John Hopkins University Press, 1999 (345 pp)In Himalaya: Life on the Edge of the World, the authors note at the outset that the study of environmental dilemmas falls into two paradigms: the first one argues that human activities are the main cause of the degradation of mountain environments, while the second contends that they are not. The first paradigm holds such factors as rapid population growth, deforestation, roads, mining, industry, dams, and overgrazing responsible for the looming mountain crisis', whereas the second paradigm refutes the first by asserting that "the contribution of human intervention…has been insignificant when balanced against the natural processes at work." Natural processes here include factors such as rapid tectonic uplift of the mountains, seismic activity, and rapid incision of the rivers. Arguing that both these paradigms are untenable, since they are based on first impressions and hit-and-run micro-studies, the authors attempt to set the record straight by exploring, rather exhaustively, the dynamic changes taking place in the Himalaya.
Using geological records, scientific reports, findings from field studies (carried out over the past 50 years), and archival and census data on population, forest cover, and land-use change during the past century, the authors provide a comprehensive history of the region from the birth of the Himalayan mountains to the variety of landforms, habitats, and climates that are seen today. They painstakingly trace human history in the region over a thousand years and provide an in-depth analysis of the pressing problems of environmental degradation, explosive population growth, spiralling poverty, bio-diversity loss, and the effects of the globalisation process that are currently confronting the region and its people. They attempt to put the changes taking place in a socio-historical context.
The book sheds light on some contentious parts of the Himalayan theory of environmental degradation, foremost among them being the so-called `mountain-plain linkages'. Earlier, river siltation and floods in the Gangetic plains were linked to deforestation in upland areas, but some Western scientists began to question this thinking as early as the mid-1980s. They called for a review of environmental policy in Himalayan countries in light of this new paradigm. The book illustrates how the `population explosion' caused by high fertility rates in the villages, coupled with advances in health care and medicine, are upsetting the carrying capacity of the natural environment and placing undue pressure on Himalayan farms and forests. It hints at reasons why efforts to combine environmental conservation and poverty alleviation must include the crucial support and commitment of local people, particularly women. It talks of how micro-hydropower schemes owned by local communities may be a better idea than big dams that displace people, result in loss of farmland or forest, incur foreign debt, or create safety risks due to seismic activity. It also cautions against unbridled industrial growth.
The authors examine in detail the fragile nature of the Himalayan mountains and discuss why this necessarily creates instability and marginality in the lives of the majority of mountain people. It touches briefly upon the idea of `sustainable development': how it evolved, and how it is at odds with many contemporary trends and realities. It elaborates upon the role of infrastructural development and the promotion of tourism, livestock, horticulture, national parks, and other `niche' enterprises in spurring economic growth in the mountains. It also acknowledges the crucial role of local knowledge, grass roots' participation, and indigenous rights in the successful overall management of environmental resources.
The central themes running through the book are the fragility of the Himalayan mountains and the idea of sustainable development' in counteracting the effects of the former. As the authors state in the closing paragraph of the closing chapter:
"Much of the current instability in the Himalaya is due to the fact that the forces of change that affect local communities have their genesis in distant societies and therefore lie outside the experiences of mountain people…. The fact that mountain environments, despite their appearances of immutability, are fragile places requiring unique environmental management compels close attention to the sustainable practices of the past as well as to modern innovations. The uncertainty of life in the Himalaya today is accelerated when this attention is not forthcoming."
This book comes at an appropriate time. The violent storm that killed most members of the Mount Everest climbing party in the Spring of 1996, and the documentaries, films, books, and articles that followed in its wake, drew all eyes to the Himalaya. The world is now curious to know more about this region. However, the awesome landscape hides the grim fact: that most of the people in the region live in abject poverty. The per capita income averages a meagre $157 USD, which is approximately one- sixth of the average income for the developing countries as a whole. The current ecological crisis in the region is most of all a crisis of poverty: poverty not only inducing environmental damage but also deepening it.
The book, thoroughly researched, amply illustrated, and written in a style suitable for both academics and mountain lovers, tells of the beauty of the mountains and the ugliness that they can no longer hide.
Reviewed by Ujol Sherchan
Information Analyst/Network Administrator, APMN/ICIMOD
e-mail: ujol@icimod.org.np